Epistemology †cognition Essay

â€Å"I have found that such an object has always been attended with such an effect, and I foresee, that other objects, which are, in appearance, similar, will be attended with similar effects†. This foretells that with knowledge, our society may be able to associate a certain aspect/detail with an object, but that does not necessarily mean it will always happen. Therefore, Hume, who starts out as an empiricist, has arrived at the conclusion where an individual may not have knowledge at all, of skeptic doubt. This is explored through the three epistemology questions, the process he did take, and what the reader thinks on the matter. According to Hume, with his process of thought with empiricism, thinks knowledge is possible. He believed that all information about the world comes through experience. The contents of consciousness are what he calls perceptions. [†¦] include our original experiences [impressions] [†¦] sense data [†¦] â€Å"internal† world composed of the contents of our psychological experiences [†¦] also include what he calls ideas, or the contents of our memories and imagination. With this approach to whether knowledge is possible, it is clear that he thinks knowledge is possible through experience; through real experiences, sense data, psychological experiences and ideas. It states that one does not have innate ideas with us such as our senses or emotions, that an individual must experience these actions first in order to recognize what they must be. If one does not experience such actions, they are what he calls ideas, â€Å"the copies of them [impressions]† (The Search for Knowledge 69). He also states that, â€Å"We can deny any matter of fact without falling into a logical contradiction. The fact that we feel confident about certain facts of the world is merely the result of our expectations, which are based on past experience† (The Search for Knowledge 70). This theory is called Hume’s Fork, where it is between the relation of an idea and a matter of a fact. This says that society may be sure about our surroundings, but they are not certain. Ideas do not tell us anything about the world, but only our thoughts of what they may be, and matters of facts are knowledge per say, but are not always certain as well. Basically, it shows that one cannot be certain of the world around us, as it may change. With the question of the role of reason within the possibility of knowledge, he believes that, â€Å"We can learn nothing about what lies outside the subjective contents found within our experiences. † (The Search for Knowledge 71), therefore reason cannot be established as the primary source of knowledge. He clarifies his reasoning with the principle of induction and the uniformity of nature. The principle of induction is basically assuming that, for example, since the sun has risen yesterday, it shall rise today and rise tomorrow. Society makes the connection that when an event occurs more than once; one will believe that it shall again happen. The uniformity of nature is where the belief of the laws of nature will continue to commence, therefore it should be still commencing in days to come. Another way he delivers this statement is through the theory of being constantly conjoined. He states that, â€Å"Causes and effects are distinct events† (The Search for Knowledge 73). It can be said that when do an action, there is an equal consequence that follows. If you take the example of where you light up a candle with a match, and then touch the flame, you experience a burning sensation where you have touched said flame. If one repeats this process, one comes to the conclusion that since this has happened in the past, it will most likely be the same or similar in the future. With the third epistemology question of whether reality is represented as it really is, he declares that, â€Å"The only certainty we can have concerns the relationships of our ideas. But since these judgments concern only the realm of ideas, they do not tell us about the external world† (The Search for Knowledge 78). As a result, one can determine that reality cannot be represented as it really is due to the fact that one cannot gain any knowledge from the outside world from our ideas. Ergo, in the world, a person may experience objects such as desks, but this person is uncertain if they are connected to an external world. Hume raises that, â€Å"Impressions are always data that are internal [†¦] hence; we have no data about what is external† (The Search for Knowledge 75). It clarifies his reasoning that society believes that they live in an external world, or that there may be one, but one does not have sufficient explanation as to why this is true. As well, an individual must also question the fact of the self. Hume affirms that, â€Å"If all we can know are sensory impressions or our internal psychological states, then we can never experience the self† (The Search for Knowledge 76). With this in mind, people are certain that they cannot experience a self because it is not a true experience such as a color, which can be experienced. There is no foundation for experiencing the self, as all one has are beliefs, assumptions and ideas, which are never certain. In a few words, Hume is specifying that as a person, one cannot step outside our bodies to see ourselves; that a person can only believe that there is a self. Going back to where knowledge is possible, in the beginning, Hume does believe knowledge is possible with perceptions and impressions. With his thought process, the reader can determine that he has progressed from the thought process of empiricism to skeptic doubt and skepticism, questioning if society has knowledge at all. He believes that in the start, society has knowledge through what he calls perceptions; which consists of the senses, the memory and the psychological states. Overall, society must have experiences if it has developed these sources of knowledge. This in turn concludes that an individual can have knowledge through experience. Since Hume believes that this is the only knowledge an individual can have, he comes to the realization where, â€Å"If all we know are the contents of experience, how can we know anything about what lies outside our experience? † (The Search for Knowledge 70-71). This expresses that one cannot have knowledge, since the foundation he has set is only for our internal thoughts. From this, he describes his thought process of skeptic doubt through causal relations and knowledge of the outside world and self. This clarifies that a person can believe something will always happen but is never certain (causal), and stating that they cannot step outside the world they have created to see what will happen outside of such (external world and self). The reader must have an assessment on the matter of Hume’s empiricism and his process towards skeptic doubt. Dealing with Hume’s empiricism, I believe that his thought process is very vague and has various doubts of its own. The idea of perceptions cannot be knowledge to begin with, because it is what we have and think, but does not necessarily mean other people in society think this same way as well. Therefore, he has already led himself into skepticism, because he cannot explain thoroughly why this is knowledge. What he explains as experience, which is where we obtain this knowledge, is unsatisfactory because the experience he says is mostly reasoning such as sense data and psychological states. For that reason, his thought process in the beginning can also be confused with rationalism, since most of what he verbalizes is knowledge that can only be discovered through reasoning and not experience. Looking at his progression towards skepticism, he believes that we cannot have knowledge because all that we have is our internal world to base our beliefs on. It is shown that through the principle of induction and the uniformity of nature, we will have the reoccurring thought that, â€Å"The future will be like the past† (The Search for Knowledge 71). With this basic in mind, we are automatically assuming every event that happens in our lives will happen or not happen again, because of past experiences. With this amount of information, it is not sufficient enough to say that we always be certain it will again happen. It all comes back to the fact that since we only have our world to experience, and since there is no way to step outside and look at the external world or the self, we are never certain of anything. Hence, we have no knowledge at all because knowledge is classified as true, justified belief and our ideas and thoughts are not. This is a strong case, and therefore, I believe with his knowledge towards skepticism, but I do not necessarily believe in skepticism. Beyond a shadow of a doubt, Hume has answered the three epistemological questions with very strong points; first as an empiricist, who then leads to a skeptic. Overall, the opinion of the reader is satisfied, because even though Hume has a very doubtful thought process of empiricism with the idea of perceptions and ideas, he then breaks down his theory with the fact that this so-called knowledge is the only source of knowledge an individual can possibly have, therefore it is not knowledge. Knowledge is worth nothing unless you can practice it.

Psychodynamic and Behavioural Essay

Introduction In this essay I’m going to describe and evaluate the core theoretical perspectives in counselling, behavioural, cognitive behavioural, humanistic and psychodynamic theories, the view of the person in therapy, the blocks to functioning of the person in therapy and the goals and techniques of each theory. I will compare and contrast the approaches looking at the similarities and differences between the counselling perspectives and how the counsellor in each theory differ in their techniques to counselling their clients. This essay will present and contrast the workings of the four major theories of counselling psychology mainly – psychodynamic, cognitive behavioural and person-centred. First I will describe what counselling entails, introducing each in turn. My discussion will examine the four theories or approaches for a history of the founder and a rationale for why they were led to introducing a new therapy approach and a sketch of the key concepts. Further, I will look at methods and processes employed by each theory, the respective roles played by the therapist and the client and the various situations to which the theory can be applied. Finally I will examine the limitations of the theory and how well it integrates with other approaches. Throughout this paper I will offer my own view of the issues at hand and in so doing attempt a synthesis of the four theories The aim of writing this essay is to widen my knowledge and insight of the four theories, their backgrounds and development, their ideologies and how they influence human behaviour. This academic essay is going to form part of the requirements for the award of Diploma in counselling studies at the Kenya Association of Professional counsellors in Kisumu. Counselling The function of counselling is to help people to resolve problem areas in their life. Counselling provides an opportunity for the person to explore the difficult feelings, thoughts and behaviours that have blocked the way to satisfying relationships, personal happiness. The purpose of counselling is to help clients achieve their personal goals, and gain greater insight into their lives. One hopes that by the end of this process one will be more  satisfied with his or her life. Counselling is not a process where the counsellor tells the client what he or she should do or decides choices for the client to make. Rather it is an opportunity for the client to come to a greater understanding of the person that he or she is with the help of the counsellor. Counselling is to assist individuals through a helping relationship to make changes and adjustments in their lives to alleviate stress and reduce unrest. To create and discover choices those are available to counsellor in order to eliminate negative responses from challenging situations. The client relationship with their counsellor is confidential. No information concerning the client will be released without their consent. Counselling does not provide instant answers. The frequency of the person visits will be determined by the client and their counsellor. Living in the modern world, surrounded by confusion and at times apparent chaos, we are all often exposed to difficulties and challenging situation. We all encounter problems such as relationship difficulties, work demands, financial obligations, unemployment, divorce or other pressures we may face on a daily basis. Psychodynamic Theory Psychodynamic theories relate in some ways to the way we feel and behave as individuals and seek to provide a framework for us to understand these aspects of our personalities often our experiences in childhood and particularly our early relationships. Much of psychodynamic thinking from Freud’s theory of psychosexual development (Freud, 1905) to Winnicott’s work with children there is a recognition that we develop patterns in behaviour early in our lives that will shape the way we relate to the world as such these theories are known as developmental theories (Spurling, 2004, pg. 2). Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) The psychodynamic theory was first postulated by Sigmund Freud as psychoanalysis in essence learned in overcoming his emotional pain, the dynamics of personality development (Corey, 2000) He developed an interest in hypnosis which was an early precursor of psychotherapy. First Born of a Viennese family of three boys and girls, he graduated from medical school and became a psychotherapist Basic Assumptions and Key Concepts The counselling theories all encompass therapeutic techniques as well as a model of the human personality. Freud’s views of human nature was that the human beings was controlled by irrational forces and instinctual drives established in childhood whereby people are products of their environments and innate unconscious forces. These instincts serve as a meaning of survival for the individual where the goal of life is to enhance pleasure and avoid pain. The reviewed human personality as comprising of three elements The ID The primitive, it is instinctive, illogical, lacks organization, seeks pleasure. Hereditary factors are represented by the ID.the Id has no judgement value (good vs evil) and has no morality. The EGO Refined by the contact with the outside world the ego is realistic, organized and logical. Super Ego Representing the authority figures, the super ego is judgemental, ideal, strives for perfection and informs the person’s moral code. It represents reality of the external world. Freud believed that for psychological health all three had to be in balance (Hough, 2002) the ego’s role was to balance the conflicting demands between the id and the super ego that led to tension in order to protect the ego from negative energy defence mechanisms develop; these include denial, repression, regression and others. He saw human development through stages denominated by changing awareness and attitudes towards human sexuality organs. Accordingly, he devised the notion of libido which he refers to as the energy of all life instincts. This energy then is the motivation that drives us to the central goal of life which is to enhance pleasure and avoid pain. Later he came up with the death instincts that accounts for human aggression in his view, those unconscious drives determine how people act (Corey, 2000). Defence Mechanisms According to psychoanalysis, when an individual faces a conflict among the ID, ego and super ego over the control of psychic (mind) energy, he adopts several defence mechanisms to cope with the challenges. While all defence mechanisms can be unhealthy, they can also be adaptive and allow us to function normally. The greatest problems arise when the defence mechanisms  are over used in order to avoid dealing with problems. [Class notes, certificate in counselling studies, 2014] Anxiety There are three types of anxiety, one being reality anxiety which is in touch with reality threat, second is neurotic anxiety which is concern those instincts that will get out of hand and thirdly moral anxiety which is fear of own conscience . So when anxiety state is in excess, one goes into ego defence mechanisms to be able to cope. This happens mostly at the unconscious level and the aim is to either deny or distort (class notes, diploma in counselling studies, 2014, pg. 65) Reality examples of defence mechanisms include repression which acts to keep information out of conscious awareness. However these mechanisms don’t just disappear they continue to influence our behaviour. E.g. a person who has repressed memories of abuse as a child, may later have difficulty forming relationship Displacement Taking out our frustrations, feelings and impulses on people or objects that are less threatening egg if a boss has annoyed a person since he/she cannot argue with the boss he/she instead expresses anger towards a person or object that poses no threat such as spouse, pet or children or house maids. Sublimation Diverging sexual or aggressive energy to socially acceptable behaviour, for example a person experiencing extreme anger might take up kickboxing as a means of venting frustrations, Development Stages Freud linked different kinds of conflicts to specific stages of a child’s development, he classified these in terms of areas of the body, he believed to represent the source of child’s libido on sexual instinct at the time he termed them oral, from birth to 1 year, anal from 1 year to 3years, phallic from 3 to 6 years, latent from 6 to 12 years and genital from 12 to 18years. Freud believed that if a child does not negotiate any of this stages, they get fixated that is they psychologically remain in that stage and do not move effectively to the others. For example you may find a 12 year old still sucking the thumb, a characteristic of the oral stage. The adolescent is in  turmoil as she/he discovers the self. Goals The goal is psychodynamic theory is one to modify individuals character by making the unconscious conscious and two to strengthen the ego so that behaviour is based more on reality than on instinct. Techniques There are many techniques used to facilitate the clients to gain insight into their behaviour and meaning of symptoms and they include, free association whereby clients are made to relax so that they can reflect whatever comes to their mind uncensored even if it is disagreeable or if it seems meaningless and this is to bring forth material from unconscious mind (Jones, 2006) another one is dream analysis where during sleep the defences are lowered and repressed feelings surface. These may point to some unresolved issues, and in transference analysis, transference manifest itself at the point when a client’s unfinished business causes them to distort the present reality and to react to therapist as they did to the father, mother as significant others. Through Freudian slip or slips of the tongue, unconscious thoughts and feelings can be transferred to conscious minds. Freud believed that slips of tongue provide an insight into the unconscious mind and not accidental and every behaviour including slips of the tongue was significant thus determining behaviour (Corey, 2001) Limitations and Weaknesses Some of the ideas (penis envy, Oedipus) are outdated in terms of our contemporary world, and it is questioned by some theorists/practitioners whether these concepts are clinically useful It takes a long time commitment in terms of time and resources to complete the psychoanalytic therapy and process. His fellow proponent Carl Jung maintains that our behaviour is not merely shaped by our past events only but by the present as well as the future. Erik Eriksson Freud did not tolerate divergent views from himself and this led his contemporaries and students establishing their own theoretical approaches, these included Alfred Adler (1870-1937) who introduced what he calls (individual psychology) in 1911 another one was Erik Eriksson[ 1963] extended his theory of psychosocial perspective by stressing the  psychosocial aspects of development beyond childhood. His theory of human development holds that both psychosexual and psychosocial growth take place together and that each stage in life we face the task of establishing equilibrium between ourselves and our social lives. He describes development in terms of the entire lifespan divided by specific crisis to be resolved. He describe the crisis as turning point in life when we have the potential to move forward or regress. To large extend our life is as a result of the choices we make at each of these stages. Behavioural Theory Behaviour therapy, lie its name implies is the psychotherapy that focuses on the change or improvement of behaviour rather than the healing of the heart or the mind as Jan Ehrenwald called it ‘psychotherapy without psyche’ (Ehrenwald, 1976) although its main focus is on the behaviour only, however, in its clinical approach, behavioural therapy has been used to treat variety of disorders such as anxiety disorders, eating disorders and sexual disorders etc. besides the clinical approach behaviour therapy has been used in the area of business, schools and rehabilitation centres. Furthermore behaviour modifications, though slightly different approach but based upon similar techniques and assumptions are also used to correct undesirable behaviour and promote adaptive behaviours in our daily life. As an overall theory the distinctive emphasis is on overwhelming role of environmental contingencies in influencing the acquisition and maintenance of behaviour (Jones, 2006) Pavlov’s classical conditioning. Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849-1936) research on the digestive system of dogs led to his discovery of the classical conditioning process which demonstrated that the learning process could be used to make an association between an environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus the underlying belief in classical conditioning is that behaviour can be controlled and that human beings can be made to do things without being aware of them just as Pavlov was able to condition a dog to salivate at the sound of a bell. This experiment shows that the environment can be manipulated to produce the desired behaviour or response, for example in counselling the client can be conditioned to produce the desired result for example to undo a negative practice such as fear. Pavlov’s researches into  conditioned reflex were essential to the founding of behaviour therapy (Jones, 2006). Skinners Operant Behaviourism B.F Skinner (1904-1990) was born in Susquehanna Pennsylvania. He came up with the concept of operant conditioning which demonstrated the effect of punishment and reinforcement on behaviour. According to him, reward and punishment make people behave in certain ways, positive reinforcement aims to increase the frequency of a response by filling it with a favourable event (rewards) while negative reinforcement makes use of punishment, withdrawal of the rewards. The term ‘operant’ emphasizes the fact that behaviour operates on the environment to generate consequences. Thus the consequences define the properties with respect to which responses are viewed as similar He acknowledged that Pavlov called all events that strengthened behaviour in his dog ‘reinforcement’ and the resulting changes their voluntary behaviour ‘conditioning’. However, the critical difference is that in Pavlov’s work, the reinforced is paired with stimulus, whereas in operant behaviour it is contingent upon a response. Classical and operant conditioning are the only two possible kinds of conditioning. (Jones, 2006) Albert Bandura‘s Social learning Bandura(1925) was born and raised in Mundare in Northern Alberta, Canada he graduated from the university of British Colombia with a psychology major and later received a doctorate in clinical psychology from university of IOWA and it was there that he came under the influence of behaviourist tradition and learning theory. He propagated social learning theory. It postulates that people are capable of learning vicariously by observing behaviourism of others as well as its consequences and imitating that behaviour. The key learning aspects include observation, retention, and motivational imitation. (Jones, 2006) Goals Main goal is to create new condition for learning. The behavioural approach helps produce effective ways of managing conditions of the client through behaviour modifications techniques and the principles of reward and punishments. It is assumed that such learning experiences can restructure behaviour. Assumptions The main assumption of behavioural approach is that behaviours learnt can be unlearnt for example the unacceptable behaviour such as smoking can be stopped. Techniques  Behavioural approaches use a variety of methods and techniques which include; relaxation training, systematic desensitization, token economies just to mention a few. These training methods are often utilized to help people learn new ways and overcome maladaptive behaviours. Relaxation training method aims at achieving muscles and mental relaxation, it is a useful experience in releasing physical and mental fatigue. While systematic desensitization is based on the principle of classical conditioning and is used to address anxiety based on maladaptive behaviour or avoidance reaction (Corey, 2001) Limitations and Weaknesses Behaviour Change is based on the idea of learning and that behaviour can be learnt and unlearnt and re-learnt contrary opinions show that some behaviours are hereditary (genetic) also behavioural approach deals with a client’s current problems and the factors that influence them rather than the reasons leading to the problem or historical determinants. The counsellor assumes that the client’s problems are influenced by present conditions for example at time it ignores the important relational and historical factors of present behaviour. Cognitive Behavioural Therapy In its simplest form, cognitive behavioural therapy (or CBT as it is referred) refers to the approach of changing dysfunctional behaviours and thoughts to realistic and healthy ones. CBT encompasses several types of therapy focusing on the impact of an individual’s thinking as it relates to expressed behaviours. Such models include rational emotive therapy(RET),rational emotive behavioural therapy(REBT), behavioural therapy (BT), Rational Behaviour Therapy (RBT), schema focused therapy and Cognitive therapy (CT).Most recently a few other variations have been linked to CBT such as an acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT), dialectic behavioural therapy (DBT) and mindfulness based cognitive therapy ( MBCT) (Harrington and Pickles,2009). The main aspect that all these branches of therapy share is that our thought relate to our external behaviours. External events and individuals do not cause the negative thoughts or feelings. But instead the perception of events and situations is the root cause (National Association of Cognitive Behavioural therapists 2010) Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT) Albert Ellis (1913) was born in Pittsburgh he combined humanistic, philosophical and behavioural therapy to form rational emotive therapy, (now known as rational emotive behaviour therapy or REBT) Ellis can be referred to as the grandfather of cognitive therapy. Ellis became dissatisfied with practicing psychoanalysis and psychotherapy and began to focus more on philosophical beliefs including those that clients could change self-defeating behaviours by changing their points of View (P.333, Sharf, 2012) Ellis was the first to connect the impact of thoughts as they relate to behaviour when he published in 1962, Reason and Emotion psychotherapy (Walsh, 2010) Ellis work asserted that an individual’s underlying thinking about him/herself directly affected his/her behaviours and as a therapist his goal was to help the clients become more reasonable in thoughts and ultimately followed behaviours. Assumptions The basic assumptions of REBT is that people contribute to their own psychological problem as well as to specific symptom by the way they interpret events and situations. The approach views human problem as stemming from disturbances in the thought or cognitive process which people are disturbed not by events themselves but by their view of events. Emotions are derived from our beliefs, evaluation, interpretation and reactions to life situations and that changing these will lead to a change in how we feel about things and consequently how we behave or the actions we take (Corey 2005) The approaches teaches individuals to become rational in thoughts in order to eliminate irresponsible behaviour Ellis created the A-B-C theory based model to create changes which simply states that emotional and behavioural consequences (C) are the results activating events. (A) And irrational beliefs (B) of those events. Later D and E are bought into play with (D) representing the detecting and disputing element and (E) becomes the new effect or behaviour. Other techniques used in REBT that are major component of CBT are visualizations, skill training, homework and role  playing many believe that Elli’s REBT and Beck’s cognitive are very similar, however, Ellis disputes this and argues that there are significant differences, as do some therapists who take the side of Beck and favour cognitive therapy (Padesky and Beck, 2003,2007) Cognitive Theory Aaron T. Beck (6 1921) was born in Providence, Rhode Island. His childhood was characterized by adversity. Aaron Becks is widely renowned for his contribution to CBT. In the 1960s Becks, who initially was interested in depression, found the depressed individuals carried many biases in their cognitive processing leading him to create Cognitive Theory (C.T) (Burns, 1999.) Beck noticed that individuals exhibit an â€Å"internal communication system within themselves, from which they formed their beliefs† or what Beck called schema (Shard, p371). An individual’s schema represents their distorted thinking patterns and determines how they view or perceive events. For those that are depressed, the schema often consists of negative thoughts along with self-criticism and self-blame. More specifically, this cognitive schema presented â€Å"three basic themes of personal ineffectiveness, personal degradation, and the world is essentially an unpleasant place (Walsh, 2010).† This type of thinking commonly resulted in individuals prophesying failure and disaster for themselves. He also noticed during therapy that his depressed clients consistently dismissed positive thoughts in order to focus on the negative thoughts. Many of such thoughts seemed to be automatic and spontaneous, leading him to coin the phrase ANTs better known as automatic negative thoughts. Such thoughts, ideas and beliefs resulted in clients believing that they were unlovable, worthless, and despicable. In 1976, Beck published Cognitive Therapies and the Emotional Disorders leading others to take notice of this concept. He also contributed to the field greatly with some of the most well-known and utilized assessments such as the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), Beck Hopelessness Scale (BHS), and Beck scale for suicidal ideation (BSS), Beck anxiety scales (BAI), and the Beck youth inventories of social impairment (BYI). Goal Cognitive therapy teaches clients how to think about their thinking so that they can correct faulty cognitive processing and develop assumptions that  allow them to cope. It also aims to impact behavioural skills relevant to client’s problems for example listening and communication skills for distressed couples and assertion skills for shy people (Jones, 2006) Technique Cognitive Behavioural Therapy is directive and persuasive and even confrontive, though it can also be reflective and structured in its approach (Corsini and Wedding 1995) the therapists takes on the role of a teacher pointing out distorted thinking helping the clients identify and process emotions and practicing new skills by way of role play. In cognitive therapy, There is a heavy reliance on homework assignments and it is very much skill based method. Limitations CBT does not suit everyone and it is not helpful for all conditions. You need to be committed and persistent in tackling and improving your health problem with the help of the therapist. It can be hard work. The homework may be difficult and challenging. You may be taken ‘out of your comfort zone’ when tackling situations which cause anxiety or distress. However, many people have greatly benefited from a course of CBT. In order to benefit from cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) you need to ensure that you give a considerable level of commitment and involvement. Due to the structured nature of CBT, it may not be suitable for people who have more complex mental health needs, or learning difficulties. Cognitive Behaviour modification Donald Meichenbaum was another major alternative to rational emotive behaviour (CBM) which focuses on changing clients self-verbalization, according to Meichenbaum (1977), self-statements affect a person’s behaviours in much the same way as statements made by another person the therapeutic process consists of training clients to modify the instructions they give to themselves so that they can cope more effectively with the problems they encounter. Emphasis on acquiring practical coping skills for problematic situations such as impulsive and aggressive behaviour, fear of taking tests, fear of public speaking. On how behaviour changes, he describes three phases one being self-observant, here clients observe their  behaviours by listening to themselves then phase two is for starting a new internal dialogue, here clients learn to notice the maladaptive behaviours and begin to see opportunities for adaptive behavioural alternatives. Phase three for learning new skills. Then modif ication process consists of teaching client more effective skills. Assumptions Meichenbaum operates on the assumption that there are multiple realities and one of the therapeutic tasks is to help clients appreciate how they construct their realities and how they author their stories (Corey 2001). Humanistic Theory Humanistic theory focuses on the positive attributes to what they considered it is to be human. To better understand some of the attributes and notions of humanistic theory the following paper analysis’s two humanistic theories in turn; specifically Maslow’s conception of self-actualization and Rogers phenomenological based personality theory. This is followed by discussing some strengths and limitations to humanistic theories in understanding relationships, others and the self. Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs According to Abraham Maslow our actions are motivated in order to achieve certain needs using a pyramid model to display the hierarchy of human needs he suggests that people are motivated to fulfil the basic needs before moving on to other more advanced needs. Needs at the bottom of the hierarchy are basic physical requirements including need of water, sleep, air and warmth. Once this lower level needs have been met. People can move to the next level of needs which are safety and security.as people progress up the pyramid, needs become increasingly psychological and social. So once the need for love, friendship and intimacy become important. Further up the pyramid the need for personal esteem and feelings of accomplishment take priority, Maslow emphasized the importance of self-actualization which is a process of growing and developing as a person in order to achieve individual potential. This Hierarchy of needs was presented in the formation of a triangle Person-Centred American psychologist Carl Rogers (1902-1987) is often considered to be  founder of this school of thought. Carl Rogers was born January 8, 1902 in Oak Park, Illinois. Carl was the fourth of six children. He maintained there were three conditions which constitute the climate to promote the personal growth Genuineness: this is the realness and congruence. According to Rogers the more a counsellor is real and true in the relationship and is not putting up personal faà §ade and professional face the more the client will change positively. Unconditional Positive Regard: This is the simple act of accepting all traits and behaviours in the client as long as it does not entail causing significant harm to others. Positive regard is not withdrawn if the client does wrong or makes a mistake Empathy: Rogers believed that the counsellor should experience an accurate understanding of the client’s awareness of his own experience and show this understanding to the client. Carl Rogers believed that the client by establishing a productive relationship with an understanding counsellor can resolve difficulties and gain the insight necessary to restructure their life. Assumption The main assumption is one that human beings are good and moving towards good provided the environment is supportive and two ,people have the capacity to solve their own problems through the self-actualizing tendency and thirdly human beings are unique, singular and individual. Techniques Humanistic counselling is aimed at helping the counselling client make different choices. This type of counselling gives the client as much freedom to be himself in the counselling setting as possible. The counsellor’s role is to accept the client as she is and direct her to view her choices objectively, but not to impose choices on her or direct her behaviour in any particular manner. Humanistic counselling includes active listening, gestalt techniques and no confrontational questioning. Active Listening Active listening helps the client identify his own thoughts and feelings by summarizing for him the content or subtext of what he says. For example, if the client says he feels uncreative lately, the counsellor might comment, â€Å"You’re really having a dry spell,† or â€Å"It must be frustrating not to have any ideas when you want to work.† This gives the client a sense of visibility–the counsellor sees, understands and accepts who he really is–as well as putting a specific name to what he is experiencing. In some  cases, this gives the client new abilities to identify his own feelings outside of the therapy room. When using active listening, counsellors should be careful to reword emotional content rather than repeating it verbatim, as the latter technique can come off as glib or â€Å"not really listening.† Gestalt Techniques Gestalt techniques are a subset of humanistic counselling aimed at helping the client integrate her thoughts, feelings and experiences so her behaviour is consistent with her values and emotions, according to Psychology Today Treatment Centre. Common gestalt techniques include free association and psychodrama. In free association, the client is asked to say the first word or phrase that pops into her head in response to a word, phrase or incomplete sentence. Psychodrama involves dialoguing with aspects of the self, such as the inner child. Clients may be asked to switch from one seat to another in order to speak from the point of view of each such aspect or to write out dialogues between these aspects. Open-Ended Questions Asking open-ended questions helps the client delve deeper into his own thoughts about an issue. These questions provide a starting point for deeper thought without expressing the counsellor’s point of view, which could unduly influence the client. The questions require the client to say something more than â€Å"yes† or â€Å"no† and avoid language that might lead him to a particular answer. Strengths and Weaknesses of Humanistic Theories As with every theory designed for application in the understanding of mankind, Humanistic theories have both strengths and many weaknesses. Thus the following section will address the major strengths and weaknesses of Humanistic theory in turn. One of the major strengths attributed to Humanistic theory is the idea that the subject is fully accountable and in control of their actions. This is in stark contrast to the notions behind psychoanalysis. Leading from this assumption is the notion that humanistic theories promote the idea of being human, self-fulfilment and realistic and observable goals that can be obtained. A final strength to Humanistic theory is the idea that from a clinical perspective it offers an open space in which a patent can express any feeling of thought without being led down a  path to revisit traumatic events which they may not feel comfortable discussing. One of the major weaknesses with Humanistic theories is lack of empirical evidence to support its claims. Academics such as Maslow have been widely criticized in this respect in terms of an absence of scientific empirical evidence. A further and related criticism of Humanistic theories is their inability and unsuitability to be used within a metaphysical arena. While Freud and contemporary Freudians managed to move towards ethics and morality through the same criticism of lack of empirical evidence, Humanistic theories have yet to encroach on the metaphysical subject area. A final criticism of Humanistic theories is that many professionals view this discipline as motivated by the cold realities of psychoanalysis and is a discipline which is based on the resistance of the unconscious; furthermore the discipline has seemed to be in decline in recent history. Conclusion I have come to the conclusion that all the four techniques are complementary and one can draw from each, and that the four approaches of psychoanalysis, cognitive behavioural, behaviourism, and humanistic psychology, represent the fundamental ways of viewing human beings and their behavioural problems. It is therefore important to get an understanding of all the techniques so as to know how to help clients with varied problems solve them. I therefore prefer Eclecticism as it acknowledges the human being is a complex being and a single approach cannot be sufficient enough to cater for this complexity. I recommend that a therapist/counsellor gets proper knowledge and training of all the theories in order to be able to counsel a client effectively. Cognitive behavioural approaches deals mainly with what is conscience and evident to the client in my view more research needs to be done and the emphasis should be more on exploring past emotional painful feelings experienced during development period. Which I believe will help the client experience them afresh, address and work on them and in so doing resolve the issues by changing their defective thinking and behaviours. References 1. BAC, 2009. The BACP definition of counselling [online] Lutterworth,Leicestershire: BAC 2. British Association of Counselling and Psychotherapy, 1986, â€Å"Counselling-Definition of terms in use with expansion and rationale (Information Sheet 1)†, Rugby: British Association for Counselling. 3. Burns, D. D. (1993). Ten Days to Self-Esteem. New York: Quill. 1999. Revised edition. 4. Corey, G, (2005) Theory and Practice of Counselling and Psychotherapy, 7th Edition, Belmont: Brooks/Cole. 5. Corey. (2001). Case approach to counselling and psychotherapy (5th. ed.). Australia: Brooks/Cole. 6. Corsini R.J. & Wedding D, eds, (1995) Current Psychotherapies, 5th Edition, Itasca: F.E.Peacock. 7. Corsini, & Wedding. (1995). Current psychotherapies (5th ed.). Itasca, Ill: F.E. Peacock Publishers. 8. Douglas Woods, (2011) â€Å"What is Counselling†http://www.dougwoods.com/counselling.html 9. Wikipedia contributors. â€Å"Sigmund Freud.† Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopaedia. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopaedia. 10. Freud, S. 1933. New introductory lectures on Psychoanalysis. Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works .New York: W.W. Norton. BF173 .F645 1966 11. Freud, Sigmund (19 62). Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality, trans. James Strachey. New York: Basic Books 12. Richard Nelson Jones (2006). Theory and Practice of counselling and Therapy : Sage Publications 13. Hansen, J.C., Rossberg, R.H., Cramer, S.H (1994) Counselling Theory and Process, 5th Edition, Needham Heights: Allyn and Bacon. 14. Hough M, 2002; A Practical Approach to Counselling, 2nd Edition, Harlow: Pearson. 15. Rogers, C. R., & American Personnel and Guidance. (1980). Inner world of counselling with Carl Rogers. New York: Insight Media. 16. Rogers, C. R., & American Personnel and Guidance. (1980). Inner world of counselling with Carl Rogers. New York: Insight Media. 17. Spurling, L. (2004) An Introduction to Psychodynamic Counselling London: Palgrave.

Building Sustainable Communities Through Green Action Plans Research Paper

Building Sustainable Communities Through Green Action Plans - Research Paper Example Technology has evolved to such a magnitude that people are now able to intensively and extensively exploit each and every aspect of their environment. This is evidenced by the rapid population increase where it is estimated that the global population would stand at about nine billion by 2070 from the current six billion (Harrell). Other potential negative impacts of over-exploitation of the environment include a decline in the vital ecosystems. Thirdly, such over-exploitation of the natural environment has led to global climate change with the climate changing to the extremes. Taking into account the aforementioned consequences of unsustainable human practices, there is no doubt that human life is jeopardized. For these very reasons, the time is now to take action. If the people of the world want to continue to live on this planet in the future, the creation of sustainable communities through green action plans is an imperative key for human survival. Sustainability initiative through green actions is indispensable for human survival. The UN World Commission on the Environment and Development defines sustainable development as that which â€Å"meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of the future generations to meet their own needs† (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). The concept of sustainability thus entail all those efforts to find a mid-point whereby there is a balance between what humanity demands from the ecosystem and the ability of this ecosystem to replenish itself. Taking more from the environmental without allowing for replenishment of what has been taken will eventually lead to the depletion of the system. With a depleted environment, the future generations will have to labor in scarcity and these could eventually lead to an end to humanity.

Human Reasource Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Human Reasource Management - Essay Example Advancements in the field of transport and communication, growing international trade and greater interaction of firms have lead to greater competition with in the growing world market. Organizations in search of better and more effective ways of production have identified the productivity of the labor force involved as the prime focus. The several techniques employed to tackle major challenges in the current environment are: Recruitment and selection is a very important aspect for development of a strong workforce. Companies need individuals who are motivated and focused for excellence, individuals whose presence increases the productivity of not only the firm but also assists other employees to be more productive. Large corporations now incorporate assessments such as personality tests, aptitude tests along with a series of interviews to asses the ability of the applicant (Cornelius, 2001). It has been an understood fact that interaction with in a group containing diverse members allows for a greater pool of innovative ideas, perspective and views according to their respective background to crop up. Such groups are very common in Multinational corporations (MNCs) (Connell, 2006). Such managements have to deal with strong local bodies combined with individuals transferred from other foreign countries who go through culture-based human resource management training to improve their ability to motivate the culturally diverse labor force. Gain Sharing The extensive emphasis on financial gains makes the technique of gain sharing very effective. This program refers to incentive plans where an employee in a common effort to improve the organizational productivity with the incentive that resulting increment will be shared between the company and the employee. Since the gain sharing is carried out on the effective increment in profits this technique does not cost the company while it motivates the employee to put in greater effort and take on greater responsibilities (Lauver, 2007). Working Environment Several researches on labor productivity identifies that a safe, peaceful and directed working environment greatly adds to the productivity of the labor force. Companies boast their ranking amongst the companies with the best working environment to attract talented individuals (Al-Lamki, 2000). An effective working environment means that each individual can feel part of the team; he or she is provided the best possible tools to work to his or her maximum ability. In the current times talented individuals are sought after vigorously amongst competing firms, firms try to lure in individuals with financial gains but creative individuals also have a need to full fill their own ambitions so they try to opt for firms that will allow them to be more productive (Legge, 1995). An effective working environment also assists in preventing labor turnover; employees who get adjusted into the

Paraphrase the answers Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Paraphrase the answers - Essay Example The project’s compatibility with various platforms is taken into consideration in this phase. This focuses on all the financial aspects of the project. Operational and development expenditures are assessed in order to establish the feasibility of the project and to ensure that everything runs according to the budget as well as cost competitors. The time available for project completion and project delivery are of primary concern. The analysis of time frame and project delivery is done in accordance with the project’s timeline and development time. The purpose of this project is to provide the users with various online services. The investigation was mainly conducted by the project manager with the assistance of other people. The aim of the project is to aide patients in choosing their preferred doctors as well as initiate and get appointments online. This system executes various activities of patients and also protects how doctors work. The system permits patients or users to easily identify doctors’ schedule, which helps them to settle for suitable appointment dates with the doctors. After a patient or user gets an appointment, the system then generates a tracking key that can be used in the future. The patient also gets a nod from the system upon getting an appointment. Doctors and other medical staff also have the chance to access the schedules and alter them as they deem fit. The project’s scope is to define various dimensions of the project requirements. It assess if all the project requirements have been met and explains how the system intends to operate and its security features. The login areas for doctors and patients are separate. After intensive review, my conclusion is that the system works in accordance with the users’ requirements and the entire system operations remain within the project scope. The total estimated project cost is $3500, which incorporates

Management Theories Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Management Theories - Research Paper Example This led him to believe that in order to increase productivity; employees who reached their targets ought to receive more salary than those who did not. However, he had overlooked the fact that different people tend to have different behaviors and money cannot be the sole motivator of all employees (Flores & Utley, 2000). In addition, Taylor viewed employees as machines th can follow a certain standardized means of production. However, it has to be noted that employees, even the unskilled cannot follow the same processes at all times because they become demoralized by doing repetitive tasks. This implies that forcing employees to do what their managers say do not increase productivity because an employee will slow down his or her work rate if she or he feels that micromanagement is being used on him or her (Flores & Utley, 2000). Taylor’s Theory of Scientific Management Taylorism or Taylor’s Theory of Scientific Management is the analysis and synthesis of workflow in ma nagement. The most important point of the theory was to increase labor productivity and as a result, achieve better economic efficiency. Development of the idea was started in the 1880s and 1890s by Taylor when he realized the importance of applying science in the production industry. While working as a supervisor and a lathe operator in Midvale Steel, he realized that several employees had different capacities of production. This arose from the fact that different employees had different levels of intelligence, talents and motivations. He was among the first people to apply science into the field of production because he wanted to analyze and synthesize the best practices that could lead to a standardized process (Taylor 1911). The best practices would be propagated to all employees in any organization in order to ensure that they were all committed to their work. This would lead to increased productivity and reduced efforts because of using precise procedures, which would be devel oped after studying each individual carefully while working. The application of scientific management in industries resulted in increased ratio between managers and the laborers. It is of paramount importance to note that many laborers could not differentiate between micromanagement and this type of management. This, in turn resulted in frictions between workers and their seniors in the office. Strikes started to occur in industries because laborers felt that they were mistreated by the managers (Taylor 1911). Frederick Winslow Taylor Frederick Winslow Taylor was an American mechanical engineer who was born on 20 March 1856 and died on 21 March 1915. While at Midvale, Taylor realized that workers were not utilizing their potentials as well as the machines they were working with to their full potential. Due to the less productivity of the workers, Midvale Steel was accruing high production costs, which could have been reduced by increasing productivity. When he was promoted to the le vel of a foreman, his focus was ensuring that workers utilized their potentials. He later left Midvale and opened his own consulting firm, which earned him enormous experience in management (Papesh, 1998). Frederick Winslow Taylor Main Theory As Taylor was developing his ideas, he made three assumptions about people at the workplace. He believed that employees are economic animals whose main aim at the workplace is to maximize their earnings. In addition, he thought that employees should

SOAP notes 1 & 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

SOAP notes 1 & 2 - Essay Example The patient further complains of general weakness of the whole body, painful aches all over his body, and itchy eyes, together with a running nose, sore and dry throat. He further complains of coughing. The patient subsequently denies that he has any form of nausea and vomiting. The history of the male patient is that he has been experiencing severe cold and nose blockage since birth. This shows that the patient has been having this problem ever since he was young. Further evidence shows that he has been under medication for the past years. He further claims that the drugs that he is been administered has been giving him difficulties during feeding and moreover during sleep. The patient further has a history of diabetes which he inherited from his parents. This diabetes has led to the lowering of his immune system response and the slow healing of wounds. This is manifested by the presence of the non - healing wounds on his right leg. ROS: Diabetes. Head: The patient claims of severe and recurring headaches. ENT: The patient complains of severe pain and discomfort during eating and also when talking on his throat. Eyes: The patient experiences sore and itchy eyes. He further experiences blurred vision due to the presence of tears on his eyes. Cardio: The patient complains of pain in the chest while breathing and coughing. ... The patient complains of a recurring and severe headache and sore throat. Allergies: The patient is not experiencing any form of allergy towards dust, cold, or drugs. Medications: The patient is under the medication of diabetes that he inherited from his parents. -Acetaminophen drug -Tylenol -Ibuprofen (Advil and Motrin) -Cough syrup -Other diabetes drugs PMH: -Diabetes -Wounds that take time to heal -Severe fever -Chills Past surgical hx: The patient has never undergone any form of surgical operations. Family hx: The patient has diabetes that he inherited from his parents. Social hx: The patient is married. Have three children; one son and two daughters. He denies that he uses drugs, but he smokes and also drinks alcohol. Objectives: Vitals: HR: 71, BP: 118/71, RR: 21, T: 103.0 oral Physical exam: The patient has a blood group of O+ (positive). He has unclear speech, and uses a lot of energy to walk. Cardio: The patient has a regular rhythm and rate. Resp: The bilateral breath of th e patient is not very clear because of sore throat and nose blockage. Thus, he is having difficulty in breathing. Skin: Dry, warm, the nose and the cheeks are pink in color. The patient also has flushed skin. Abd: Soft and non - distended. Lymph: There is presence of palpated lymph nodes under the armpits and other locations of the body. Stool for OC: Negative Labs (1/4/12) – pre transfusion: HGB: 7.9, HCT: 25.6, WBC: 12, PLT: 469, RBC: 2.21, MCV: 87, ALBUMIN: 2.0, PRE – ALBUMIN: 20.1, GLOBULIN: 5.0, IRON: 27 Labs (1/10/12) – post transfusion: HGB: 10.6, HCT: 30.9, WBC: 10, PLT: 430, RBC: 4.21, MCV: 84, RDW: 15.3, RETIC COUNT: 1.7, BUN: 29, CR: 1.12, GFR: 43. 2D Cardiac Echo (10/09/11) EF: 50 – 60% MVP ENT

Enternal Nutrition support assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Enternal Nutrition support assignment - Essay Example The registered dietitian (RD) has completed a nutrition assessment for Ms. Brown and has determined she will need a total of 2500 kcal daily to meet her nutrient needs. The RD plans to leave recommendations for three tube feeding delivery options in the medical chart for the physician to select from as it hasn’t been determined yet which option Ms. Brown will tolerate the best. 3. If Ms. Brown were to receive intermittent feedings eight times a day, how many milliliters of formula would she need at each feeding? If the formula were packaged in 250-mL cans, how many cans of formula would be required per day? Per feeding? 4/8= 0.5 mililitres Instructions: Visit the website at http://ccn.aacnjournals.org/content/27/4/17.full and read the article titled â€Å"Development of Evidence-Based Guidelines and Critical Care Nurses’ Knowledge of Enteral Feeding.† Answer the questions below based on the

The personal growth i hope to gain from a college education at Monroe Essay

The personal growth i hope to gain from a college education at Monroe College - Essay Example Currently, I am connected with Delta Airlines as part of the Aviation Operation Department. Although my education was delayed by my job, the working experience taught me discipline and commitment; besides, the jobs were only a means to a higher end- education. These two values are important to me since I can apply them also in my studies here in Monroe College when I get accepted. I learned about Monroe College when they came to the island where my job was located. The school had some seminar and I immediately got interested. Apparently, the school is welcoming even to non U.S. citizens like me which is very comfortable to know. The field of interest that I would like to pursue is Information Technology. I chose this field since I am really interested in how computers work as evident in my first job as a computer technician. Moreover, I believe that knowledge in Information Technology can bring an impact to humanity by discovering more systems that will enhance people’s work productivity. Aside from the interest and some set of skills that would help me in pursuing this field, I believe that Monroe Colleges 75 years of teaching excellence would give me the expertise that I am seeking. The certification examinations that the college of Information Technology can give me a head start once I pass them. Good education involves three players: my parents ( w ho are very supportive), myself ( well-motivated), and the school ( Monroe College). Given these three factors that will probably work together, I am sure that when I become a student of Monroe college, I will seek academic

Language and Communication Essay Example for Free

Language and Communication Essay Choosing a college is one of the most difficult choices you can make in regards to your career and there are many facets which need to be looked at when making that decision. Since we have a similar career path, I wanted to take the time to share with you the many different reasons why I chose Western Governors University as my college of choice. Credited certification courses, online access, flexible scheduling, expediting graduation date, and cost were all major factors I considered when I chose WGU. Information Technology certifications many times can still be a requirement that employers look for, even if you have a degree, as I know, it is also one of your major concerns. WGU offers industry certifications as a part of their course curriculum, which is one of the only colleges to do this. They include many of the different types of certifications depending on your learning track like Microsoft, CIW, CompTia, and Oracle. By incorporating them into the courses it enhances your resume, not only by the ability to declare your education but also that you have certifications that showcases your knowledge within the information technology industry, giving you an edge. Having an outstanding online program with easy access to the certification and course material was another advantage of choosing WGU, which is another concern you raised due to your current travel demands with your job. The online presence offered by WGU is the best that I have seen and having used it for the last year, and I know firsthand its quality and accessibility. Whether I am in the hotel, a rest stop, or having lunch at work I can access all my program information. Furthermore, they utilize Pearson, Task Stream, course mentorship, online communities, and workshops and have an extensive online library. The online dashboard outlines your entire degree program, course descriptions, emails, course contacts, degree tracking, and financial aid information. Overall the quality of the online functionality is the best, and will help ensure your experience is a great one. By having a well laid out online degree program not only assists you gaining, access but also actually helps you stay on track with flexible scheduling. With a busy work schedule, I am not bound by offsite classrooms, conference calls, or online live classes which can be mandatory for some schools; I pick the time to work on my education. Having this flexibility is key as I move forward in my current job meeting its demands, and meeting my education demands as well. Whether it is before work, lunchtime, after work, or weekends it is up to myself to find the time when it allows. Also, meeting the demands of an active family life can be very difficult to manage. With on-demand materials, when you want them, you can maintain a normal family lifestyle. To be empowered with flexibility of scheduling your classes online, along with a dynamic, robust education platform, make Western Governors a clear choice. Even though flexible scheduling is an import aspect of WGU when considering a college, the power to expedite your graduation date is just as important. When you sign up with WGU, you select your courses that match your degree program and can control what semesters you would like to take at that time. Once you have completed all your courses for a semester, you can still take additional courses within that semester. By utilizing the pre-assessments within the online dashboard, you can pre-qualify what you know about the course and move forward with the test, completing the whole course in days rather than months. This is great if the course is on something you have already established industry knowledge in the work place. Another great aspect is that if you already have certifications that you have earned, you can get credit for it, thus fulfilling a credit course. Being able to expedite your graduation is a huge value in saving your time, efforts and, most importantly, costs. College tuition has been on the rise over the years, and choosing a school that provides a top knowledge education, that is credited, sums up yet another reason for choosing WGU. They have a unique cost-cutting education system where you pay by the semester, not by each credit. So as you complete each course and then add more within that semester, you can actually reduce your overall cost for that degree. There are also savings found when you do not have to take additional certification classes and tests outside of your normal tuition, because it is all included. Another cost saving piece is that the school provides all the course materials for free, the books for each class is provided electronically. You save on commuting, as well as room and board which can also add to the bottom line of your education costs. The value of going to WGU for a top quality education is an undeniable benefit to you and your family, and should be a major factor in your decision. The decision to go to school or going back to complete your education can be a daunting task and one not to be taken lightly. But with your own research, you will find out what I have, that WGU is the best answer to your quest for success. With the certification built into the program, it just makes sense not to duplicate learning tracks. Online access gives you the resource to control your education and gives you a wider, flexible schedule to work with. Expediting your graduation date can only speed up and increase career opportunities. Finally, the cost comparison between a campus college verses an online education at WGU will give you the sense of value for the money spent well. Western Governors University is one of the fastest growing, premier online schools, providing a great education in a timely manner and results that will enhance your career.

Economic Costs of Civil War

Economic Costs of Civil War Costalli, S., Moretti, L., Pischedda, C. (2014). The Economic Costs of Civil War: Synthetic Counterfactual Evidence and the Effects of Ethnic Fractionalization. HiCN Working Papers, 184. This paper provides an analysis of the role of the civil war in the destruction of the economy of a particular region. This paper directly relates to the topic of big business because it is virtually impossible for any business organization to achieve growth in an environment that is not stable. Civil wars and conflicts normally have the capability of destroying the economy of a given region, and this is better reflected in Iraq, Sub-Saharan Africa and various regions of the world, which are prone to civil wars. This paper provides a detailed analysis on the impact of civil wars within an economy, and the best policies to enact for purposes of protecting a given economy from collapse. This paper directly relates to the current issues that involve the manner which organizations are doing business. This is because of globalization, and the era of multi-national corporations, where business organizations are involved in an expansion strategy aimed at increasing the share of their markets, and their profits. However, these organizations cannot invest in a hostile climate that is full of civil war. This is because they would most definitely make losses, and infrastructures do not exist, that can help in the facilitation of business activities. Therefore, having a complete understanding of the political and business environment of a particular region is important because it helps in the development of a decision on whether to expand in a given economy or not. The reason I choose this paper is based on the fact that the world is cur5rently experiencing a series of civil wars. This includes a civil war in Lebanon, Syria, Iraq, Libya, Somalia, Nigeria, etc. These wars play a role in limiting the growth of these states, and in the conduction of international trade. For example, a country such as Nigeria, Iraq and Libya has various multi-national corporations which are in charge of drilling oil, and exploring oil substances. Civil conflicts and political instability would scare off international investors, leading to the collapse of the economies of these countries. The limitation of this paper, is that it does not provide adequate information on how top prevent civil wars. I intend to get this information from books, specifically books written about democracy and politics. Political journals would also be another source of information aimed at supplementing the information contained in this article. This is the first article I would review, specifically because it introduces us to factors that may hinder the emergence of big business organizations within an economy. Sab, R. (2014). Economic Impact of Selected Conflicts in the Middle East: What Can We Learn from the Past? IMF Working Papers. This paper examines the causes of conflict, in making countries to be unstable. This paper concerns itself with Middle-East, where it analyzes how civil wars, political instabilities has led to a slowdown in economic growth, high inflation, loss of revenues, large fiscal deficits etc. Through this paper, we are able to learn that it is virtually impossible to carry out business activities in a political environment that is not stable. This paper relates with the current business environment, because of the concept of international trade, where multi-national companies normally seek to invest in stable political economies. Therefore, we are able to learn while these companies do not invest in most unstable countries of Middle East. The motivation of using this article, is based on the need of understanding how politics play a role in influencing the growth of business organization. There are gaps in this paper, and one is that it does not provide the methods to use in promoting good governance and political stability. Therefore, I intend to use books, specifically, books on democracy and governance for purposes of addressing the shortcomings of this article. This is the second article I would review, because it is directly related to the first article. Wandschneider, K. (2014). Capital Controls and Recovery from the Financial Crisis of the 1930s. C.E.P.R. Discussion Papers, 10019. This paper relates to the topic Big Business because it outlines and explains the various capital regulatory measures that were enacted by government organizations in the financial crisis that occurred during the periods of 1930s. It is very essential to understand the response of the regimes during these eras, in terms of capital flights, because big business organizations are always characterized by the control of large capitals that they use for purposes of investing within the regions or areas of their operations. To safeguard the collapse of an economy because of capital flights, it is necessary to introduce capital control measures that are targeted to big business organizations. Hence this article is very important, because it provides this kind of information. The information contained in this article is highly relevant in the current business environment. This is because the world has just experienced a global recession which was similar to that which took place in the 1930s. The response of the government was also the regulation of large business enterprises, and interfering with their activities for purposes of protecting them from going bankrupt. This aspect of the regulation of big business organization is therefore important, because of the great role they play in the development of the economy of a particular state or region. The global recession affected almost all major international companies, and they were at the verge of collapsing, hence the intervention of their home governments. This paper is therefore a motivation to me, because it explains the methods used in controlling and regulating big business organizations so that they may not fail in their operations. However, this paper only centers on the role of government in regulating big business organization, hence the reduction of capital flights from these economies. It does not explain the role of other stakeholders such as investors, customers, etc. I intend to find this kind of information from other journals of economics, finance and business. References: Costalli, S., Moretti, L., Pischedda, C. (2014). The Economic Costs of Civil War: Synthetic Counterfactual Evidence and the Effects of Ethnic Fractionalization. HiCN Working Papers, 184. Sab, R. (2014). Economic Impact of Selected Conflicts in the Middle East: What Can We Learn from the Past? IMF Working Papers. Wandschneider, K. (2014). Capital Controls and Recovery from the Financial Crisis of the 1930s. C.E.P.R. Discussion Papers, 10019.

Computers in Drug Research and Development :: Essays Papers

Computers in Drug Research and Development As the computer becomes more and more powerful, its uses and abilities grow. Scientists have been able to harness this power in to assist them in their goals of researching and developing drugs for human use. Computers can be found in nearly every drug research laboratory and development center in the world. In the process of developing a drug, thousands upon thousands of chemical compounds are tested to be used in laboratory tests and animal tests. Generally, over 5000 compounds are chosen for such testing. Of 5000 chosen compounds, around five will be acceptable for use on humans in testing. Computers play a huge role in the testing and narrowing down of such chemical compounds used in drugs. Models of chemicals and reactions can be computer simulated to rule out compounds that would not be acceptable. Using computers in such a way greatly reduces the time spent on lengthy animal testing, and also ensures that the drugs that do pass will be safe for human testing. Home computers are now being used to aid scientists in drug research as well. One web site, www.FightAidsAtHome.org offers a downloadable program that uses your home computers idle processes to perform complex computations that aid in AIDS drug research. The results are automatically sent back to the researchers who use them in their developmental process. Such a program would have been insignificant ten years ago, when very few people owned computers powerful enough to perform the operations needed by researchers today. However, because the internet is so widespread and because home computers are becoming so powerful, such a program works and works well. One specific use of computers in drug development is a program developed by Art Olson called AutoDock. This program is used to simulate the interactions of proteins in molecules as they meet. Because of the extreme power of today’s computers, the program creates extremely accurate results, even though there are thousands of factors that determine the final result. Using these simulations, scientists are able to more easily understand how two different molecules will interact, which helps greatly in the drug development process. Many programs similar to AutoDock are used by scientists. Each of these programs are used to determine the outcomes of specific interactions between molecules, chemical compounds and other biological and chemical interactions.

Wireless Network Security Essay -- Wireless Networks Technology Essays

Introduction Wireless networks have grown in popularity. This is largely due to the increase in the value of a network as more users are attached to it. The value added to a network by nature of connecting more devices to it, is summarized in 'Metcalf's law.' Metcalf's law states that if you 'connect any number, 'n,' of machines - whether computers, phones or even cars - and you get 'n' squared potential value.'[1] The incredible growth of the Internet seems to validate Metcalf's law. It then seems reasonable that eliminating physical constraints to connecting to a network would provide value by allowing more devices to be connected to a network regardless of physical location. Wireless networks provide that ability. Wireless networks operate over the full spectrum of network topographies. These topographies include: Personal, Local, Controller, Metropolitan, and Wide area networks. A Personal Area Network (PAN) is the interconnection of information technology devices within the range of an individual person, typically within a range of 10 meters.?[2] A Local Area Network (LAN) is a group of computers and associated devices that share a common communications line or wireless link and typically share the resources of a single processor or server within a small geographic area (for example, within an office building).?[2] A Campus Area Network (CAN) is a fiber-optic network that physically interconnects entire buildings into one giant network. While each building may have several discrete LANs within it, each building represents a single node on the CAN. [3] A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is ?a network that interconnects users with computer resources in a geographic area or region larger than t hat covered by even a large [LAN] but smaller than the area covered by a wide area network (WAN [- explained next]).?[2] A Wide Area Network (WAN) is ?a geographically dispersed telecommunications network.?[2] Wireless networks come in many configurations and use many technologies. Figure 1 depicts an example of the wireless technologies and standards used for each of the networks types defined above. The figure indicates two major categories of wireless technologies: fixed and mobile. The figure also indicates 10 technologies in use: Bluetooth, irDA, 802.11, IR LAN, IR Bridge, Ricochet, RF Bridge, Cellular, MCS and Satellite. Virtually all of these tec... ...e issues addressed in the 802.11i standard, third party software vendors are rapidly creating and marketing wireless security services and third-party solutions. As the wireless market matures, it will become increasingly difficult to ?crack? wireless network security. References [1] http://www.seas.upenn.edu/~gaj1/metgg.html - Metcalf?s Law and Legacy [2] http://www.whatis.com - Whatis?com [3] http://www.lib.siu.edu/faq/network1.faq.html - LAN FAQ1 [4] http://local.cips.ca/queencity/Events/archivedEvents/2000-01/SpringSeminar01/kentonjanzen/sld003.htm - Canadian Information Processing Society [5] http://www.tml.hut.fi/Studies/T-110.557/2002/papers/zahed_iqbal.pdf - Wireless LAN Technology: Current State and Future Trends [6] http://www.athenasemi.com/market/index.html - [Wireless] Market Overview [7] http://www.microsoft.com/technet/treeview/default.asp?url=/technet/columns/cableguy/cg0302.asp - Microsoft TechNet [8] http://csrc.ncsl.nist.gov/publications/drafts/draft-sp800-48.pdf - Wireless Network Security [9] http://www.whatis.com (war driving) ? Whatis?com [10] http://www.netgear.com/pdf_docs/10StepsWirelessSecurity.pdf - Ten Easy Steps for Wireless LAN Security Wireless Network Security Essay -- Wireless Networks Technology Essays Introduction Wireless networks have grown in popularity. This is largely due to the increase in the value of a network as more users are attached to it. The value added to a network by nature of connecting more devices to it, is summarized in 'Metcalf's law.' Metcalf's law states that if you 'connect any number, 'n,' of machines - whether computers, phones or even cars - and you get 'n' squared potential value.'[1] The incredible growth of the Internet seems to validate Metcalf's law. It then seems reasonable that eliminating physical constraints to connecting to a network would provide value by allowing more devices to be connected to a network regardless of physical location. Wireless networks provide that ability. Wireless networks operate over the full spectrum of network topographies. These topographies include: Personal, Local, Controller, Metropolitan, and Wide area networks. A Personal Area Network (PAN) is the interconnection of information technology devices within the range of an individual person, typically within a range of 10 meters.?[2] A Local Area Network (LAN) is a group of computers and associated devices that share a common communications line or wireless link and typically share the resources of a single processor or server within a small geographic area (for example, within an office building).?[2] A Campus Area Network (CAN) is a fiber-optic network that physically interconnects entire buildings into one giant network. While each building may have several discrete LANs within it, each building represents a single node on the CAN. [3] A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is ?a network that interconnects users with computer resources in a geographic area or region larger than t hat covered by even a large [LAN] but smaller than the area covered by a wide area network (WAN [- explained next]).?[2] A Wide Area Network (WAN) is ?a geographically dispersed telecommunications network.?[2] Wireless networks come in many configurations and use many technologies. Figure 1 depicts an example of the wireless technologies and standards used for each of the networks types defined above. The figure indicates two major categories of wireless technologies: fixed and mobile. The figure also indicates 10 technologies in use: Bluetooth, irDA, 802.11, IR LAN, IR Bridge, Ricochet, RF Bridge, Cellular, MCS and Satellite. Virtually all of these tec... ...e issues addressed in the 802.11i standard, third party software vendors are rapidly creating and marketing wireless security services and third-party solutions. As the wireless market matures, it will become increasingly difficult to ?crack? wireless network security. References [1] http://www.seas.upenn.edu/~gaj1/metgg.html - Metcalf?s Law and Legacy [2] http://www.whatis.com - Whatis?com [3] http://www.lib.siu.edu/faq/network1.faq.html - LAN FAQ1 [4] http://local.cips.ca/queencity/Events/archivedEvents/2000-01/SpringSeminar01/kentonjanzen/sld003.htm - Canadian Information Processing Society [5] http://www.tml.hut.fi/Studies/T-110.557/2002/papers/zahed_iqbal.pdf - Wireless LAN Technology: Current State and Future Trends [6] http://www.athenasemi.com/market/index.html - [Wireless] Market Overview [7] http://www.microsoft.com/technet/treeview/default.asp?url=/technet/columns/cableguy/cg0302.asp - Microsoft TechNet [8] http://csrc.ncsl.nist.gov/publications/drafts/draft-sp800-48.pdf - Wireless Network Security [9] http://www.whatis.com (war driving) ? Whatis?com [10] http://www.netgear.com/pdf_docs/10StepsWirelessSecurity.pdf - Ten Easy Steps for Wireless LAN Security

College Life Essay

College life is stress free; whoever said anything about it being difficult is ludacris. Being in college is so nice. There is work but there isn’t as much work as in high school. The assignments aren’t due for credit or points in our final grade. We do assignments for fun. It’s no big deal if we don’t do our homework, cramming the material the night before always works, that’s how high school was. The rest of the time we don’t have class we hang out with friends and talk until the day ends. There are so many things to do on campus such as joining clubs, going downtown, going shopping, or walking around campus with friends; there is no time for homework. There is only time for exploring and having fun in college. That’s what the college life is all about having fun and socializing to our hearts content at parties, during class, after classes and on the weekends. All of the socializing outside of school leads you to do well in college. Testing your boundaries and finding out what you truly love to do. Classes are there to keep you on track and help you appreciate what you’re doing outside of school. School is there to help you realize what you want to do in the future, whether it is your new hobby or your career. College is all about finding yourself. You can always make up the schoolwork anytime, but the main focus that schools want you to do is to have fun while being able to balance assignments and school. They are preparing you for your exciting future in the real world. The real world and the world of college are different but pretty much the same, there are the same workloads and most definitely the same enjoyment in the things you do at work and in college. College work is harder since you have to worry about making connections in college and keeping them strong because those relationships are those that you’re going to treasure most. No one talks about high school memories, everyone talks about college memories. That’s why having the most fun those college years and caring less about school is the way to go for the best college memories and experiences you may ever have, in your entire life. Life is going to be boring without those college years of fun, going in to the working world with more experiences  from college gives you a head up in the game, called the real world. Although you think its bad for you now, but wait until you get to tell everyone about your experiences in college during those job interviews. They will be excited to hire you right off the bat knowing that you are ready for the real world. Ready to work now that you have experience in experiencing the world to its fullest, and being able to share those experiences and relating them to people and their situations. My modest proposal is to enjoy yourself in college, don’t worry too much about the grades. Be in college for the education but don’t forget to go wild when having fun during those college years. You never know when you’re going to be able to experience them again in the real world.

Dividend policy decision Essay

Dividend policy decision is one of the important decisions of corporate finance. A dividend policy should be such that it maximizes the shareholders wealth and provides adequate financing to the firm. A firm with fluctuation dividend policy is considered risky by the investors. (Shim & Siegel, 1998) Usually a stable dividend payout policy is maintained by companies. Leverage which is given by total debt/total assets, is negatively related to the dividend payments, that is higher the leverage in the firms capital lower is the dividend paid. Companies with less debt and sizeable tangible assets usually pay more dividends as it is usually stable. (Aivazian & Cleary, 2003) However, this has been contradicted by the signaling theory which says that the company’s which have high dividend payout ratio tend to be financed by debt and company’s which have low dividend payout ratio are more inclined to be financed by equity. (Chang & Rhee, 1990) The agency theory and tax preference theory suggests that there is a positive relationship between the institutional ownership and the dividend payouts. (Jenson, Solberg & Zorn 1992) However, both numbers of shares owned by institutional investors as well as proportion of institutional ownership does not significantly affect the dividend payout ratio. This is because the companies will not have to enter the capital markets for additional funds if they are owned by institutional investors which mean less compliance procedures and monitoring by the external authorities. On the other hand signaling theory advocates a negative relationship between the proportion of institutional ownership and dividend payments. There is a strong positive relationship between the profitability that is the Return on equity and dividend payments. The return on equity is given by net income/ shareholders equity. The higher the income would mean firms would have more money to distribute as dividends, and this would also convey better performance. (Ho, 2003). A firm with high business risk is inclined to pay lower dividends and the firm with stable earnings and low risk would pay high dividends. This is because the firm would be more likely to go bankrupt than a firm with low business risk as the earnings and liquidity position is not predictable. The agency theory of dividend policy says that there is a negative relationship between fixed asset ratio given by fixed asset by total assets and dividend payout ratio. The more money is blocked in the tangible fixed assets, the less is available to fund short term assets, which can be used as collateral security to finance the short term borrowings. The firms would not be able to have access to short term loan and would therefore depend on the retained earnings to meet the short term requirements. Firms which have high liquid assets would pay more dividends than firms with less liquid assets. Liquidity position of a company is measured by current assets / current liabilities. High cash availability would enable firms pay more dividends. Moreover if the liquidity position is high the probability of bankruptcy also reduces. Large firms would pay more dividends as they would have easy access to capital markets than small firms. As large firms are more diversified and less susceptible to financial distress, they pay more dividends to the shareholders than the smaller firms (Gul & Kealey 1999). The higher the growth opportunities the higher is the possibility of firms distributing low dividends. The profits would be retained by the firms in order to finance the expansion plans. Market to book value ratio is used as a proxy for growth opportunities. Hence, there is a negative ratio between market to book vale and dividend payments. Thus we find that all the factors play a role in formulation dividend policy. Some have significant impact while others factors may not have a considerable effect. Reference: Aivazian, V. , Booth I. , Cleary S. , (2003) Do emerging markets firms follow different dividend policies from the US firms? Journal of financial research, 26(3) pp. 371-387 Chang, R. P. , Rhee, S. G. , (1990) The impact of personal taxes on corporate dividend policy and structural decision, Financial management, 19(2) pp. 21-31 Gul, F. A. , Kealey, B. T. , (1999) Investment opportunity set and corporate debt and dividend policies of Korean companies, Review of quantitative finance and accounting, 13(4) pp. 401-414 Ho, H. , (2003) Dividend Policies in Australia and Japan, International Advances in economic research Jensen, G. , Solberg, D. , Zorn, T. , (1992) Simultaneous determination of insider ownership, debt and dividend policies, Journal of financial quantitative analysis, pp 247-263 Shim, Jae K. , Siegel, Joel G. , (1998) Schaum’s outline of theory and problems of financial management, McGraw-Hill Professional, USA

Shadow Kiss Chapter 3

Three â€Å"WHY SO GLUM, LITTLE DHAMPIR?† I was heading across the quad, toward the commons, when I detected the scent of clove cigarettes. I sighed. â€Å"Adrian, you are the last person I want to see right now.† Adrian Ivashkov hurried up beside me, blowing a cloud of smoke into the air that of course drifted right toward me. I waved it off and made a great show of exaggerated coughing. Adrian was a royal Moroi we'd â€Å"acquired† on our recent ski trip. He was a few years older than me and had come back to St. Vladimir's to work on learning spirit with Lissa. So far, he was the only other spirit user we knew of. He was arrogant and spoiled and spent a lot of his time indulging in cigarettes, alcohol, and women. He also had a crush on me – or at least wanted to get me into bed. â€Å"Apparently,† he said. â€Å"I've hardly seen you at all since we got back. If I didn't know better, I'd say you were avoiding me.† â€Å"I am avoiding you.† He exhaled loudly and raked a hand through the sable brown hair he always kept stylishly messy. â€Å"Look, Rose. You don't have to keep up with the hard-to-get thing. You've already got me.† Adrian knew perfectly well I wasn't playing hard-to-get, but he always took a particular delight in teasing me. â€Å"I'm really not in the mood for your so-called charm today.† â€Å"What happened, then? You're stomping through every puddle you can find and look like you're going to punch the first person you see.† â€Å"Why are you hanging around, then? Aren't you worried about getting hit?† â€Å"Aw, you'd never hurt me. My face is too pretty.† â€Å"Not pretty enough to make up for the gross, carcinogenic smoke blowing in my face. How can you do that? Smoking's not allowed on campus. Abby Badica got two weeks' detention when she got caught.† â€Å"I'm above the rules, Rose. I'm neither student nor staff, merely a free spirit wandering your fair school as I will.† â€Å"Maybe you should go do some wandering now.† â€Å"You want to get rid of me, you tell me what's going on.† There was no avoiding it. Besides, he'd know soon enough. Everyone would know. â€Å"I got assigned to Christian for my field experience.† There was a pause, and then Adrian burst out laughing. â€Å"Wow. Now I understand. In light of that, you actually seem remarkably calm.† â€Å"I was supposed to have Lissa,† I growled. â€Å"I can't believe they did this to me.† â€Å"Why did they do it? Is there some chance you might not be with her when you graduate?† â€Å"No. They just all seem to think this is going to help me train better now. Dimitri and I will still be her real guardians later.† Adrian gave me a sidelong glance. â€Å"Oh, I'm sure that'll be quite the hardship for you.† It had to be one of the weirdest things in the universe that Lissa had never come close to suspecting my feelings for Dimitri but that Adrian had figured it out. â€Å"Like I said, your commentary isn't appreciated today.† He apparently didn't agree. I had a suspicious feeling he'd been drinking already, and it was barely even lunchtime. â€Å"What's the problem? Christian'll be with Lissa all the time anyway.† Adrian had a point. Not that I'd have admitted it. Then, in that short-attention-span way of his, he switched subjects just as we neared the building. â€Å"Have I mentioned your aura to you?† he asked suddenly. There was a strange note to his voice. Hesitant. Curious. It was very uncharacteristic. Everything he usually said was mocking. â€Å"I don't know. Yeah, once. You said it was dark or something. Why?† Auras were fields of light that surrounded every person. Their colors and brightness were allegedly linked to a person's personality and energy. Only spirit users could see them. Adrian had been doing it for as long as he could remember, but Lissa was still learning. â€Å"Hard to explain. Maybe it's nothing.† He came to a stop near the door and inhaled deeply on his cigarette. He went out of his way to blow a cloud of smoke away from me, but the wind carried it back. â€Å"Auras are strange. They ebb and flow and change colors and brightness. Some are vivid, some are pale. Every once in a while, someone's will settle and burn with such a pure color that you can†¦Ã¢â‚¬  He tipped his head back, staring into the sky. I recognized the signs of that weird â€Å"unhinged† state he sometimes fell into. â€Å"You can instantly grasp what it means. It's like seeing into their soul.† I smiled. â€Å"But you haven't figured mine out, huh? Or what any of these colors mean?† He shrugged. â€Å"I'm figuring it out. You talk to enough people, get a feel for what they're like and then start to see the same kinds of people with the same kinds of colors†¦. After a while, the colors start to mean something.† â€Å"What's mine look like right now?† He glanced over at me. â€Å"Eh, I can't quite get a fix on it today.† â€Å"I knew it. You've been drinking.† Substances, like alcohol or certain medications, numbed spirit's effects. â€Å"Just enough to chase the chill away. I can guess what your aura's like, though. It's usually like the others, sort of those swirling colors – it's just kind of edged in darkness. Like you've always got a shadow following you.† Something in his voice made me shiver. Although I'd heard him and Lissa talk about auras a lot, I'd never really thought of them as anything I needed to worry about. They were more like some kind of stage trick – a cool thing with little substance. â€Å"That's so cheerful,† I said. â€Å"You ever think about motivational speaking?† His scattered look faded, and his normal mirth returned. â€Å"Don't worry, little dhampir. You might be surrounded by clouds, but you'll always be like sunshine to me.† I rolled my eyes. He dropped his cigarette onto the sidewalk and put it out with his foot. â€Å"Gotta go. See you later.† He swept me a gallant bow and started walking away toward guest housing. â€Å"You just littered!† I yelled. â€Å"Above the rules, Rose,† he called back. â€Å"Above the rules.† Shaking my head, I picked up the now-cold cigarette butt and took it to a garbage can that was outside the building. When I entered, the warmth inside was a welcome change as I shook off the slush on my boots. Down in the cafeteria, I found lunch wrapping up for the afternoon. Here, dhampirs sat side by side with Moroi, providing a study in contrasts. Dhampirs, with our half-human blood, were bigger – though not taller – and more solidly built. The girl novices were curvier than the ultra-slim Moroi girls, the boy novices far more muscular than their vampire counterparts. The Moroi complexions were pale and delicate, like porcelain, while ours were tanned from being outside in the sun so much. Lissa sat at a table by herself, looking serene and angelic in a white sweater. Her pale blond hair cascaded over her shoulders. She glanced up at my approach, and welcoming feelings flowed to me through our bond. She grinned. â€Å"Oh, look at your face. It's true, isn't it? You really are assigned to Christian.† I glared. â€Å"Would it kill you to be a little less miserable?† She gave me a censuring yet amused look as she licked the last of her strawberry yogurt off her spoon. â€Å"I mean, he's my boyfriend, after all. I hang out with him all the time. It's not that bad.† â€Å"You have the patience of a saint,† I grumbled, slouching into a chair. â€Å"And besides, you don't hang out with him 24/7.† â€Å"Neither will you. It's only 24/6.† â€Å"Same difference. It might as well be 24/10.† She frowned. â€Å"That doesn't make any sense.† I waved off my idiotic remark and stared blankly around the lunchroom. The room was buzzing with news of the impending field exercise, which would kick off as soon as lunch ended. Camille's best friend had gotten assigned to Ryan's best friend, and the four of them huddled gleefully together, looking as though they were about to embark on a six-week double date. At least someone would enjoy all this. I sighed. Christian, my soon-to-be charge, was off with the feeders – humans who willingly donated blood to Moroi. Through our bond, I sensed Lissa wanting to tell me something. She was holding off because she was worried about my bad mood and wanted to make sure I got enough support. I smiled. â€Å"Stop worrying about me. What's up?† She smiled back, her pink-glossed lips hiding her fangs. â€Å"I got permission.† â€Å"Permission for – ?† The answer flitted from her mind faster than she could have voiced it. â€Å"What?† I exclaimed. â€Å"You're going to stop your meds?† Spirit was an amazing power, one whose cool abilities we were just starting to figure out. It had a very nasty side effect, however: It could lead to depression and insanity. Part of the reason Adrian indulged in drinking so much (aside from his party nature) was to numb himself against these side effects. Lissa had a much healthier way of doing it. She took antidepressants, which completely cut her off from the magic altogether. She hated not being able to work with spirit anymore, but that was an acceptable trade-off for not going crazy. Well, I thought it was. She apparently disagreed if she was considering this insane experiment. I knew she'd been wanting to try the magic again, but I hadn't really thought she'd go through with it – or that anyone would let her. â€Å"I have to check in with Ms. Carmack every day and regularly talk to a counselor.† Lissa made a face at this last part, but her overall feelings were still quite upbeat. â€Å"I can't wait to see what I can do with Adrian.† â€Å"Adrian's a bad influence.† â€Å"He didn't make me do this, Rose. I chose it.† When I didn't answer, she lightly touched my arm. â€Å"Hey, listen. Don't worry. I've been so much better, and lots of people are going to have my back.† â€Å"Everyone except me,† I told her wistfully. Across the room, Christian entered through a set of double doors and approached us. The clock read five minutes until the end of lunch. â€Å"Oh man. The zero hour is almost here.† Christian pulled up a chair at our table and flipped it backwards, letting his chin rest on its slatted back. He brushed his black hair away from his blue eyes and gave us a smug smile. I felt Lissa's heart lighten at his presence. â€Å"I can't wait until this show gets on the road,† he said. â€Å"You and me are going to have so much fun, Rose. Picking out curtains, doing each other's hair, telling ghost stories â€Å" The reference to â€Å"ghost stories† hit a little closer to home than I was comfortable with. Not that choosing curtains or brushing Christian's hair was much more appealing. I shook my head in exasperation and stood up. â€Å"I'll leave you two alone for your last few private moments.† They laughed. I walked over to the lunch line, hoping to find some leftover doughnuts from breakfast. So far, I could see croissants, quiche, and poached pears. It must have been highbrow day at the cafeteria. Was deep-fried dough really too much to ask for? Eddie stood in front of me. His face turned apologetic as soon as he saw me. â€Å"Rose, I'm really sorry – â€Å" I put up a hand to stop him. â€Å"Don't worry. It's not your fault. Just promise me you'll do a good job protecting her.† It was a silly sentiment since she was in no real danger, but I could never really stop worrying about her – particularly in light of this new development with her medication. Eddie stayed serious, apparently not thinking my request was silly at all. He was one of the few who knew about Lissa's abilities – and their downsides, which was probably why he'd been selected to guard her. â€Å"I won't let anything happen to her. I mean it.† I couldn't help a smile, in spite of my glum mood. His experiences with the Strigoi made him take all of this more seriously than almost any other novice. Aside from me, he was probably the best choice to guard her. â€Å"Rose, is it true you punched Guardian Petrov?† I turned and looked into the faces of two Moroi, Jesse Zeklos and Ralf Sarcozy. They'd just stepped in line behind Eddie and me and looked more self-satisfied and annoying than usual. Jesse was all bronzed good looks and quick thinking. Ralf was his slightly less attractive and slightly less intelligent sidekick. They were quite possibly the two people I hated most at this school, mainly due to some nasty rumors they'd spread about me doing some very explicit things with them. It was Mason's strong-arming that had forced them to tell the truth to the school, and I don't think they'd ever forgiven me for that. â€Å"Punch Alberta? Hardly.† I started to turn around, but Ralf kept talking. â€Å"We heard you threw a big hissy fit in the gym when you found out who you were with.† â€Å"‘Hissy fit'? What are you, sixty? All I did was – † I paused and carefully chose my words. † – register my opinion.† â€Å"Well,† said Jesse. â€Å"I suppose if anyone's going to keep an eye on that Strigoi wannabe, it might as well be you. You're the biggest badass around here.† The grudging tone in his voice made it sound like he was complimenting me. I didn't see it that way at all. Before he could utter another word, I was standing right in front of him, with barely any space between us. In what I considered a true sign of discipline, I didn't put my hand around his throat. His eyes widened in surprise. â€Å"Christian has nothing to do with any Strigoi,† I said in a low voice. â€Å"His parents – â€Å" â€Å"Are his parents. And he's Christian. Don't confuse them.† Jesse had been on the wrong side of my anger before. He was clearly remembering that, and his fear warred with his desire to trash-talk Christian in front of me. Surprisingly, the latter won out. â€Å"Earlier you acted like being with him was the end of the world, and now you're defending him? You know how he is – he breaks rules all the time. Are you saying you seriously don't believe there's any chance at all he might turn Strigoi like his parents?† â€Å"None,† I said. â€Å"Absolutely none. Christian's more willing to take a stand against Strigoi than probably any other Moroi here.† Jesse's eyes flicked curiously toward Ralf before returning to me. â€Å"He even helped me fight against those ones in Spokane. There is no chance of him ever, ever turning Strigoi.† I racked my brain, trying to recall who had been assigned to Jesse for the field experience. â€Å"And if I hear you spreading that crap around, Dean isn't going to be able to save you from me.† â€Å"Or me,† added Eddie, who had come to stand right beside me. Jesse swallowed and took a step back. â€Å"You're such a liar. You can't lay a hand on me. If you get suspended now, you'll never graduate.† He was right, of course, but I smiled anyway. â€Å"Might be worth it. We'll have to see, huh?† It was at that point that Jesse and Ralf decided they didn't want anything from the lunch line after all. They stalked off, and I heard something that sounded suspiciously like â€Å"crazy bitch.† â€Å"Jerks,† I muttered. Then I brightened. â€Å"Oh, hey. Doughnuts.† I got a chocolate-glazed, and then Eddie and I hurried off to find our Moroi and get to class. He grinned at me. â€Å"If I didn't know any better, I'd say you just defended Christian's honor. Isn't he a pain in the ass?† â€Å"Yes,† I said, licking icing off my fingers. â€Å"He is. But for the next six weeks, he's my pain in the ass.†